Gast
NachrichtenBearbeiten
Transition NewsBearbeiten: Kann Feed nicht laden oder parsen | Peter MayerBearbeiten: Kann Feed nicht laden oder parsen |
NZZBearbeitenFeed Titel: Wissenschaft - News und HintergrĂŒnde zu Wissen & Forschung | NZZ Der Depression davonrennen: Wie Sport die Psyche stĂ€rkt
Zwei grosse Studien aus diesem Jahr zeigen, dass Bewegung Depressionen bekĂ€mpfen kann. Wie das möglich ist und wie man die Sportart findet, die zu den eigenen BedĂŒrfnissen passt.
Temperaturrekorde und DĂŒrre: Warum dieser Sommer in Europa so heiss ist
Durch den Klimawandel sind die HĂ€ufigkeit und die IntensitĂ€t von Hitzewellen gestiegen. Doch er ist nicht der einzige Grund fĂŒr das extreme Wetter.
Eine SpaceX-Rakete ist auf den Mond gekracht und hat einen neuen Krater hinterlassen. Jetzt gibt es erste Bilder
Anfang August hat eine zurĂŒckgelassene Falcon-9-Rakete dem Mond einen neuen Krater verpasst. Geplant war das nicht.
DIE NEUESTEN ENTWICKLUNGEN - Ebola-Ausbruch in Zentralafrika: Mehr als 5000 bestÀtigte FÀlle in Kongo-Kinshasa
Die Weltgesundheitsorganisation (WHO) hat den Gesundheitsnotstand ausgerufen. Die Infektionszahlen steigen weiterhin an. Hier sind die wichtigsten Antworten zum Ebola-Virus zu finden.
Alzheimer und Krebs: Kann die eine Krankheit vor der anderen schĂŒtzen?
Forscher sind auf einen rĂ€tselhaften Zusammenhang gestossen â Menschen mit einer Krebsdiagnose scheinen seltener an Demenz zu erkranken â und umgekehrt. Sie hoffen, eine ErklĂ€rung fĂŒr das PhĂ€nomen könnte AnsĂ€tze fĂŒr neue Therapien liefern.
| VerfassungsblogBearbeitenFeed Titel: Vera Lengsfeld Wertewesten! Mir grautâs vor dir!
In Massachusetts hat die Gouverneurin Maura Healey ein Gesetz unterzeichnet, das Abtreibungen bis zur Geburt erlaubt. WĂ€hrend sie signierte, spendeten die sie umstehenden Damen erfreut Beifall. Bei diesem Bild hat mich das Grauen gepackt. Sind Frauen die besseren Politiker, macht weibliche Politik die Welt sicherer, schöner, lebenswerter? Dreimal nein. Feministische Politik ist in letzter Konsequenz ⊠âWertewesten! Mir grautâs vor dir!â weiterlesen
Das Signal von Plauen 2
Die Demo in Plauen war ein groĂer Erfolg. Die Veranstalter sprechen von 20 000 Teilnehmer, die Polizei von 10 000, also kann man annejhmen, dass es 15 000 waren, wie bei der historischen Demo von 1989! Oben einer der Medienberichte., von Vogtland TV.
Das Signal von Plauen
Dies ist mein GruĂwort fĂŒr die Demo Wie sind die M1llion, die zum Zeitpunkt der Veröffentlichung in Plauen im Gange ist. Im FrĂŒhherbst1989 entschlieĂt sich ein 21-JĂ€hriger Plauener BĂŒrger zu dem sehr gewagten Schritt, ein Flugblatt zu verfassen. Er ertrĂ€gt die AtmosphĂ€re im Land nicht lĂ€nger. Tausende Menschen verlassen die DDR, Jörg Schneider will bleiben. ⊠âDas Signal von Plauenâ weiterlesen
|
VerfassungsblogBearbeitenFeed Titel: Verfassungsblog Hoffnungsanker im Paradigmenwechsel
Bei dem aktuellen Entwurf des Reformgesetzes zum Nachrichtendienstrecht stehen die Aufweichung des Trennungsgebots und die beabsichtigten aktionellen Befugnisse der Dienste sowie Sonderregelungen fĂŒr den Spannungs- und Verteidigungsfall im Fokus (siehe den Beitrag von Anna Höning). Der Entwurf enthĂ€lt aber noch in anderer Hinsicht GrundsĂ€tzliches: eine Neuordnung der nachrichtendienstlichen Kontrollarchitektur durch den Ausbau der ZustĂ€ndigkeit des UnabhĂ€ngigen Kontrollrats. Diese erweiterte verfahrensrechtliche Sicherung kann aber nur zum Teil die Erweiterungen der Befugnisse fĂŒr die Nachrichtendienste kompensieren, die in vielerlei Hinsicht einen Paradigmenwechsel darstellen. Ob diese starke verfahrensrechtliche Komponente ausreichend ist, um dem Entwurf zur VerfassungskonformitĂ€t zu verhelfen, ist daher fraglich. Deutschland hat eine komplexe nachrichtendienstliche KontrollarchitekturAn der Kontrolle der Nachrichtendienste sind in Deutschland zahlreiche Akteure mit sich zum Teil ĂŒberschneidenden ZustĂ€ndigkeiten beteiligt. Unternimmt man den Versuch einer systematischen Gliederung, kann man vier SĂ€ulen unterscheiden: die exekutive, die parlamentarische, die gerichtliche und quasi-gerichtliche sowie die öffentliche Kontrolle (nĂ€her hierzu Löffelmann/Zöller, Nachrichtendienstrecht, 2. Auflage 2025, S. 284 ff.). Exekutive Kontrolle wird durch die den Diensten ĂŒbergeordneten Fachressorts im Wege der Fach-, Dienst- und Rechtsaufsicht vor allem durch den Erlass von Dienstvorschriften, Weisungen, in Gestalt von Berichtspflichten und im Falle des BND durch das Auftragsprofil der Bundesregierung ausgeĂŒbt. Es handelt sich um ein sehr engmaschiges, im öffentlichen und sicherheitspolitischen Diskurs stark unterschĂ€tztes Kontrollinstrument. Als Bundesoberbehörden fallen die Dienste zudem in die ZustĂ€ndigkeit der Bundesbeauftragten fĂŒr den Datenschutz und die Informationsfreiheit. Parlamentarisch werden die Nachrichtendienste in erster Linie durch legislative AktivitĂ€t kontrolliert: Mithilfe von Gesetzen soll nachrichtendienstliches Handeln eingehegt werden. AuĂerdem ist dort zentraler Akteur das Parlamentarische Kontrollgremium, welches nicht unmittelbar das operative Handeln der Nachrichtendienste, sondern die politische Verantwortlichkeit der Bundesregierung fĂŒr dieses kontrolliert (vgl. Art. 45d Abs. 1 GG, § 1 Abs. 1 PKGrG). Nachrichtendienstliches Handeln kann ferner durch die davon betroffenen Personen im Wege vorbeugenden und nachtrĂ€glichen Rechtsschutzes vor den Verwaltungsgerichten angegriffen werden und ist gelegentlich auch Gegenstand von Straf- und Zivilverfahren. Aufgrund der klandestinen Natur solchen Handelns und eingeschrĂ€nkter Benachrichtigungspflichten stöĂt diese Form der Kontrolle an faktische Grenzen. FĂŒr MaĂnahmen der TelekommunikationsĂŒberwachung nach dem G 10 ist der Rechtsweg vor einer Benachrichtigung der ĂŒberwachten Personen ausdrĂŒcklich ausgeschlossen (§ 13 G 10). Hinzu kommt die unabhĂ€ngige Vorabkontrolle. Der öffentlichen Kontrolle dienen unter anderem presserechtliche und archivrechtliche sowie datenschutzrechtliche AuskunftsansprĂŒche (§ 15 BVerfSchG, § 9 BNDG, § 50 MADG). Bei einer Gesamtbetrachtung gibt es bei den deutschen Nachrichtendiensten â auch im VerhĂ€ltnis zu anderen Bereichen des Sicherheitsrechts und im internationalen Vergleich â kaum ein Zuwenig an Kontrolle. Das Problem ist die UnĂŒbersichtlichkeit der Kontrollarchitektur, dazu spĂ€ter mehr. Die unabhĂ€ngige Vorabkontrolle als verfassungsrechtliches Gebot bei schweren GrundrechtseingriffenAngesichts der nur eingeschrĂ€nkten nachtrĂ€glichen Rechtsschutzmöglichkeiten ist das wichtigste Kontrollinstrument die Vorabkontrolle eingriffsintensiver MaĂnahmen durch eine unabhĂ€ngige und neutrale Instanz. Vorbild hierfĂŒr ist der Richtervorbehalt, der fĂŒr Eingriffe in das Wohnungsgrundrecht verfassungsunmittelbar verankert ist. Das Bundesverfassungsgericht hat diesen Gedanken sukzessive aus VerhĂ€ltnismĂ€ĂigkeitserwĂ€gungen abgeleitet auf schwere Eingriffe in andere Grundrechte ĂŒbertragen. Es fordert dabei nicht zwingend eine gerichtliche, aber doch gerichtsĂ€hnliche Kontrolle (ausf. zur Thematik Höning 2024). FĂŒr Eingriffe in das Fernmeldegeheimnis nach Art. 10 GG stellen die G 10-Kommissionen auf Bundes- und LĂ€nderebene ein solches Instrument der Vorabkontrolle dar. Ihre verfassungsrechtliche Verankerung in Art. 10 Abs. 2 S. 2 GG war ursprĂŒnglich Surrogat fĂŒr den expliziten Ausschluss des regulĂ€ren Zugangs zu den Fachgerichten bei G 10-MaĂnahmen. Unter anderem weil die Mitglieder der G 10-Kommissionen nur auf ehrenamtlicher Basis tĂ€tig sind, wurde in der Vergangenheit Kritik an der ProfessionalitĂ€t und EffektivitĂ€t ihrer KontrolltĂ€tigkeit geĂŒbt. FĂŒr MaĂnahmen der strategischen Ausland-FernmeldeaufklĂ€rung des BND entwickelte das Bundesverfassungsgericht zudem in seiner Entscheidung vom 19. Mai 2020 nach dem Vorbild des britischen Kontrollsystems dezidierte Vorgaben zu einer lĂŒckenlosen Vorab- und Verlaufskontrolle durch ein unabhĂ€ngiges und neutrales Organ (BVerfG, 1 BvR 2835/17, Rn. 272 ff.). Der Gesetzgeber setzte die Vorgaben des Gerichts um, indem er 2021 den UnabhĂ€ngigen Kontrollrat etablierte (§§ 40 ff. BNDG): Dabei ging der Gesetzgeber gleich in mehrfacher Hinsicht â etwa bei der hochrangigen Besetzung durch sechs vormalige Bundesrichter â ĂŒber die verfassungsgerichtlichen Vorgaben hinaus. Der UnabhĂ€ngige Kontrollrat besteht aus zwei komplementĂ€ren Teilorganen, dem gerichtsĂ€hnlichen und dem administrativen Kontrollorgan, die gemeinsam eine umfassende Kontrolle der technischen AufklĂ€rungsmaĂnahmen des BND gewĂ€hrleisten sollen. Das gerichtsĂ€hnliche Teilorgan muss MaĂnahmen der technischen AufklĂ€rung vorab genehmigen, das administrative Teilorgan ĂŒberwacht unter datenschutzrechtlichen Gesichtspunkten die RechtmĂ€Ăigkeit der weiteren Verarbeitung der erlangten Daten. Als oberste Bundesbehörde ist der Kontrollrat dem BND ĂŒber- und den aufsichtfĂŒhrenden Ressorts gleichgeordnet und verfĂŒgt ĂŒber einen eigenen Haushalt. Der Kontrollrat gilt nicht als dritte Stelle im Sinne der Third Party Rule und besitzt gegenĂŒber dem BND umfassende Informationsrechte. DoppelzustĂ€ndigkeiten, Kompetenzkonflikte und VerantwortungsdiffusionAn der aktuellen Kontrollarchitektur wird kritisiert, dass die Vielzahl der zustĂ€ndigen Kontrolleure DoppelzustĂ€ndigkeiten, Kompetenzkonflikte und Verantwortungsdiffusion hervorrufe. Besonders deutlich wird das im VerhĂ€ltnis von G 10-Kommission, UnabhĂ€ngigem Kontrollrat und Bundesbeauftragter fĂŒr den Datenschutz. FĂŒr die G 10-Kommission des Bundes stellte der Gesetzgeber mit der EinfĂŒgung des § 28 Abs. 2 S. 2 BVerfSchG (§ 26a Abs. 2 S. 2 BVerfSchG a.F.) deren vorrangige ZustĂ€ndigkeit klar. Ein anderes prominentes Beispiel fĂŒr solche Konflikte ist eine Klage der Bundesbeauftragten fĂŒr Datenschutz gegen den BND auf Einsichtnahme in Daten zu AufklĂ€rungsmaĂnahmen, die der UnabhĂ€ngige Kontrollrat genehmigt hatte. Das Bundesverwaltungsgericht wies mit seiner Entscheidung vom 4. MĂ€rz 2026 diese Klage ab (BVerwG, 6 A 2.24). ZustĂ€ndigkeitskollisionen gibt es auch bei der strategischen FernmeldeaufklĂ€rung des BND. FĂŒr MaĂnahmen der Inland-Ausland-AufklĂ€rung nach § 5 G 10 ist die G 10-Kommission zustĂ€ndig, fĂŒr solche der Ausland-Ausland-AufklĂ€rung nach §§ 19 ff. BNDG der UnabhĂ€ngige Kontrollrat, obwohl beide MaĂnahmen in technischer Hinsicht eng miteinander verknĂŒpft sind â ihre Behandlung in separaten Regelungsregimen lĂ€sst sich nur historisch erklĂ€ren. Rechtlich problematisch ist aber auch der Zuschnitt der G 10-Kommissionen. In seiner Entscheidung zu strategischen ĂberwachungsmaĂnahmen des BND vom 8. Oktober 2024 griff das Bundesverfassungsgericht die erwĂ€hnte Kritik an der G 10-Kommission auf und monierte, dass der Kommission der nötige gerichtsĂ€hnliche Zuschnitt fehle (BVerfG, 1 BvR 1743/16 u.a., Rn. 170 ff.). Auch das war ein Anlass fĂŒr die aktuelle Reform. Der Gesetzgeber hĂ€tte die G 10-Kommission freilich alternativ ertĂŒchtigen können. Kritisiert wurden in der Vergangenheit ferner die hochrangige personelle Ausstattung des UnabhĂ€ngigen Kontrollrats und das dortige aufwĂ€ndige Verfahren bei zugleich begrenzten PrĂŒfungskompetenzen. Zum Vergleich: In den meisten anderen Bereichen des Sicherheitsrechts werden eingriffsintensive ĂberwachungsmaĂnahmen von Richtern der Richtereingangsbesoldungsstufe R 1 ĂŒberprĂŒft. Rein statusmĂ€Ăig stellt allein das gerichtsĂ€hnliche Organ des UnabhĂ€ngigen Kontrollrats ein vierundvierzigmal potenteres (und kostspieligeres) Instrument dar. Hinzu kommen zahlreiche Initiativen zur StĂ€rkung der parlamentarischen Kontrolle (vgl. etwa BT-Drs. 19/19502, 19/19509, 19/26221, 19/26120; Dietrich, ZRP 2014, 205 ff.). Bei alledem zeigt sich ein breiter gesetzgeberischer Spielraum fĂŒr die Ausgestaltung der Kontrollarchitektur. Der aktuelle Gesetzentwurf stellt den Kontrollrat in den Mittelpunkt der VorabkontrolleDer aktuelle Gesetzentwurf unternimmt den begrĂŒĂenswerten Versuch, die unĂŒbersichtliche Kontrolllandschaft in Teilen zu glĂ€tten. Dem UnabhĂ€ngigen Kontrollrat kommt dabei eine integrative Funktion zu. De lege ferenda soll er fĂŒr die prĂ€ventive Kontrolle aller in besonderem MaĂe eingriffsintensiven ĂberwachungsmaĂnahmen sowohl des BND (§ 97 Abs. 1 BNDG-E) als auch des BfV (§ 34 BVerfSchG-E) zustĂ€ndig sein. Zur Vermeidung von Kompetenzkonflikten wird die AlleinzustĂ€ndigkeit des Kontrollrats fĂŒr die operativen MaĂnahmen dieser Dienste klargestellt (§ 3 Abs. 1 UKRatG-E); die Bundesbeauftragte bleibt zustĂ€ndig fĂŒr deren administrative Datenhaltung (§ 69 Abs. 2 Nr. 2 BVerfSchG-E, § 98 Abs. 2 BNDG-E). Die G 10-Kommission wird abgeschafft (Artikel 23 Ziff. 3). AuĂerdem ist der Kontrollrat unter anderem einzubinden bei der Erprobung unbenannter nachrichtendienstlicher Mittel (§ 16 Abs. 4 S. 4 BVerfSchG-E, § 97 Abs. 1 Nr. 4 i.V.m. § 19 BNDG-E), der Fassung des Katalogs nachrichtendienstlicher Mittel in der entsprechenden Dienstvorschrift des BND (§ 97 Abs. 3 Nr. 6 BNDG-E), bei Ausnahmen von der Benachrichtigung Betroffener (§ 35 Abs. 5 BVerfSchG-E, § 100 Abs. 4 S. 2, § 101 Abs. 2 BNDG-E) sowie bei den neuen âSchutzmaĂnahmenâ des BfV (§ 60 Abs. 2, 4 S. 2 BVerfSchG-E) und âerweiterten nachrichtendienstlichen Mittelnâ des BND (§ 97 Abs. 2 i.V.m. § 50 BNDG-E). Im Spannungs- und Verteidigungsfall ist die Kontrolldichte eingeschrĂ€nkt, so entfĂ€llt zum Beispiel im Verteidigungsfall die Vorabkontrolle beim BND (§ 132 Abs. 3 S. 2 Nr. 1 BNDG-E); Benachrichtigungspflichten werden bereits im Spannungsfall ausgesetzt (§ 132 Abs. 5 S. 1 Nr. 1 BNDG-E, § 75 Abs. 4 BVerfSchG-E). Die bislang in den §§ 40 bis 58 BNDG enthaltenen Regelungen zur institutionellen Verfassung des UnabhĂ€ngigen Kontrollrats werden weiter ausgebaut und in ein eigenes Gesetz, das UKRatG, ĂŒberfĂŒhrt (Artikel 3). Die Besetzung des gerichtsĂ€hnlichen Kontrollorgans wird auf neun Mitglieder erweitert (§ 14 Abs. 1 S. 1 UKRatG-E). KĂŒnftig können nicht nur Bundesrichter, sondern auch BundesanwĂ€lte, Beamte einer obersten Bundesbehörde der Besoldungsgruppe B 6 und ehemalige Mitglieder der G 10-Kommision des Bundes zu Kontrollbeauftragten bestellt werden (§ 14 Abs. 2 UKRatG). Die Verankerung der letztgenannten Lex G 10 dĂŒrfte mit politischen und personellen Kompromissen bei der Abschaffung der G 10-Kommission zu tun haben. Die originĂ€re gerichtliche ex post-Kontrolle wird bei TelekommunikationsĂŒberwachungsmaĂnahmen des BND ausgeschlossen (§ 103 BNDG-E). Die Benachrichtigung betroffener Personen ist fĂŒr den BND generell nur bei einem Inlandsbezug erforderlich (§ 100 Abs. 3 BNDG-E). Bei den Auskunftsrechten betroffener Personen geht das Ersatzauskunftsrecht von der Bundesbeauftragten auf den Kontrollrat ĂŒber (§ 70 Abs. 4 BVerfSchG-E, § 102 Abs. 5 BNDG-E). Neu hinzu kommt zudem ein Beschwerderecht zum Kontrollrat (§ 69 Abs. 1 und 2 BVerfSchG-E, § 38 UKRatG-E). Reicht die StĂ€rkung der Vorabkontrolle?FĂŒr sich betrachtet ist die Reform der Kontrollarchitektur schlĂŒssig und dĂŒrfte auch mit Blick auf die einzelnen KontrollgegenstĂ€nde verfassungsrechtlich nicht zu beanstanden sein. Dass nach der grundsĂ€tzlichen Weichenstellung mit der Etablierung des UnabhĂ€ngigen Kontrollrats 2021 dieser die Aufgaben der Vorabkontrolle ĂŒbernimmt, macht viel Sinn. Eine ressourcenschonendere und zugleich legitimationsstarke Lösung wĂ€re allerdings auch ein klassischer Richtervorbehalt gewesen. Diesen Weg geht weiterhin (mit Ausnahme der TelekommunikationsĂŒberwachung, Artikel 5 Ziff. 5 lit. b, Ziff. 6 lit. b) das bereits 2025 novellierte MADG, das die TĂ€tigkeit des MilitĂ€rischen Abschirmdienstes â des Verfassungsschutzes der Bundeswehr â regelt. Die LĂ€nder verfolgen ganz unterschiedliche KontrollansĂ€tze, von einer ErtĂŒchtigung der G 10-Kommissionen ĂŒber gerichtliche ZustĂ€ndigkeiten und unabhĂ€ngige Gremien bis hin zu hybriden Modellen. Das fundamentale Problem der Fragmentierung des Nachrichtendienstrechts wird also durch den Umbau der Kontrolle auf Bundesebene nur teilweise gelöst. Die zentrale Problematik des gegenstĂ€ndlichen Entwurfs ist allerdings nicht die Kontrollarchitektur, sondern der in vielerlei Hinsicht paradigmatische Befugniszuwachs der Dienste. Mit der umfangreichen Etablierung aktioneller Befugnisse wird das Trennungsgebot aufgeweicht und verfassungsrechtliches Neuland betreten. Denn der Umstand, dass die Dienste ĂŒber keine âoperativen Anschlussbefugnisseâ verfĂŒgen, war bisher ein maĂgeblicher Grund dafĂŒr, ihnen weitreichende AufklĂ€rungsbefugnisse im Gefahrenvorfeld zuzugestehen. Der Zuwachs solcher und anderer Befugnisse kann zwar durch die StĂ€rkung verfahrensrechtlicher Sicherungen, wie sie der Entwurf verfolgt, teilweise abgefedert werden. Allerdings liegt darin ein erhebliches verfassungs- und konventionsrechtliches Risiko. Problematisch sind zudem die Ăffnungsklauseln: Sie erlauben den Einsatz von Befugnissen, die das Gesetz nicht benennt, und schwĂ€chen damit die parlamentarische Definitionsmacht ĂŒber das rechtliche Korsett der Dienste. Nach § 16 Abs. 4 BVerfSchG-E und § 19 Abs. 1 BNDG-E dĂŒrfen gesetzlich nicht geregelte nachrichtendienstliche Mittel fĂŒr eine Dauer von bis zu vier Jahren erprobt werden. Das ist â trotz der erforderlichen Einbindung des Kontrollrats â eine SelbstermĂ€chtigung der Exekutive unter Umgehung des Parlaments. Aus einer pragmatischen Perspektive ist die dadurch erreichte FlexibilitĂ€t durchaus wĂŒnschenswert. Parlamentarische Legitimation sollte aber nicht auf dem Altar der Pragmatik geopfert werden. The post Hoffnungsanker im Paradigmenwechsel appeared first on Verfassungsblog. Constitutional Politics in Action â Part II
In August 2026, the Hungarian Constitutional Court (CC) rejected (here and here) the petitions challenging the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments to the Fundamental Law. The petitions concerned the dismantling of the public-interest asset management foundations performing public duty, the termination of the mandate of the President of the Republic, the introduction of an age limit affecting sitting CC judges, and limits on eligibility for parliamentary office. In each case, the Court held that the petition, although framed in terms of procedural or public-law invalidity, in substance sought a prohibited substantive review of a constitutional amendment. The decisions prompted extensive separate opinions. The dissenters developed arguments closely aligned with those of the petitioners, while several concurring judges accepted the Courtâs restrictive understanding of its powers but nevertheless expressed substantive objections to the reconstruction measures. An earlier analysis of the petitions showed how Fidesz, after losing constitutional power, strategically reconfigured constitutional doctrine and authorities previously used against its own autocratization as constraints on democratic reconstruction. The four CC decisions show a positional reversal within constitutional adjudication, although it appears differently across the majority and dissenting opinions. In the majority decisions (rejection) of the CC, which has been described as servants of the interests of the OrbĂĄn regime, the doctrine remains unchanged, but its effect reverses: restrictions on the review of constitutional amendments introduced by Fidesz now prevent the review of constitutional amendments adopted by the new Tisza constitutional majority. The dissenting opinions reveal the positional reversal more directly. They revive the logic of the CCâs 2012 decision, developed as creative resistance to abusive constitutional practices of the Fidesz majority, and combine it with later doctrines to argue for admitting petitions against the new majorityâs constitutional amendments. The concurring opinions do not follow this move: several judges criticize the reconstruction measures substantively while maintaining the Courtâs restrictive 2013 understanding of its powers and, therefore, agreeing with the rejection of the petitions. The Courtâs Doctrinal Trajectory Before 2026The significance of this positional reversal becomes clearer against the Courtâs earlier case law, which counts four key decisions. Decision 61/2011. (VII. 13.) is a warning and procedural opening, while maintaining the feasibility of the procedural review of constitutional amendments. The case arose from constitutional amendments adopted in connection with the retroactive 98 percent tax and the restriction of the CCâs jurisdiction. While maintaining that it lacked competence to review constitutional amendments substantively, it has identified the danger of abusive constitutionalism. The Court articulated strong warnings about constitutional amendment in light of constitutional values and Hungaryâs international obligations and laid out doctrinal arguments on which a more demanding approach towards constitutional amendments could later build. Nevertheless, it only accepted review of constitutional amendments on procedural grounds (public-law invalidity). Decision 45/2012. (XII. 29.) is a decision of creative resistance against abusive constitutionalism of Fidesz. The case concerned the Transitional Provisions of the Fundamental Law (TP FL), adopted separately from the FL but declared to form part of it. This decision developed doctrine creatively to defend constraints against Fideszâs emerging illiberal constitutional project. The Court refused to allow Parliamentâs formal classification of the TP FL as âpart of the Fundamental Lawâ to determine its constitutional status as constitutional text and examined whether it fell within the constitutional authorization under which it had been adopted. If the CC considered the self-declaration of the TP FL, it could not have reviewed and annulled parts of it because it lacked competence to review the constitution and its amendments on substantive grounds, as established in its earlier case law. Decision 12/2013. (V. 24.) signals the self-limiting turn and accommodation of democratic backsliding. The Fourth Amendment to the FL responded to Decision 45/2012 by incorporating many contested provisions of the TP FL into the Fundamental Law and expressly limiting the CCâs review of constitutional amendments to procedural requirements. When the Fourth Amendment itself was challenged, the majority of the CC accepted this new restriction as the applicable standard in the case (which concerned its own constitutionality) and refused substantive review. Nevertheless, the majority decision added that fundamental rights, EU obligations, and international law continued to constrain constitutional and legislative action, but emphasized that this signaling position did not create an enforceable substantive limit on constitutional amendment. The dissenting opinions maintained that another doctrinal route was nevertheless available and could have been chosen. AndrĂĄs Bragyova argued that the validity of the Fourth Amendment should be assessed under the FL as it stood when the amendment was adopted, which contained no rules on reviewing constitutional amendments. He recalled that substantive review had previously remained an interpretive question. LĂĄszlĂł Kiss likewise argued that the majority had abandoned doctrinal resources available in decisions 61/2011 and 45/2012. Decision 22/2016 (XII. 5) means a creative facilitation of the entrenchment of backsliding. Shortly after an unsuccessful attempt to constitutionalize constitutional identity, the CC developed constitutional identity judicially in the context of EU law. This concept was subsequently incorporated into the FL. This decision therefore represents a very different use of judicial creativity from 45/2012. The Decision 45/2012 resisted the emerging illiberal constitutional project, whereas Decision 22/2016 contributed to its constitutional entrenchment. The Majority and Concurring Opinions of the 2026 Decisions: Restrictive Continuity, Reversed EffectThe four 2026 decisions reaffirm the restrictive position consolidated in 12/2013. The CC reads Articles S(3) and 24(5) of the Fundamental Law as permitting review of constitutional amendments only for violations of the procedural requirements governing their adoption and promulgation. The petitioners argued that the Court had first to determine whether the challenged provisions were genuinely constitutional norms and thus capable of being adopted through the constitutional amendment procedure. The CC rejected this distinction. Assessing the normativity, generality, purpose, temporal effects or permissible subject matter of the challenged provisions would, in its view, require an examination of their content and therefore amount to prohibited substantive review. The majority opinion places this conclusion within the restrictive line described above. It regards decisions 61/2011, 45/2012 and 12/2013 insofar as they support the conclusion that, after the Fourth Amendment, the scope of review is confined to procedural requirements. It does not engage with the different constitutional functions of these decisions or with the line of reasoning, emerging in 61/2011 and still visible in 12/2013, concerning substantive constitutional standards that might constrain constitutional power. Instead, it stresses that the FL contains no such binding standard that would allow the Court to conduct substantive amendment review. This is also the safer doctrinal route for the majority. Taking the alternative suggested most clearly by PĂ©ter Polt would have required the CC to engage seriously with the petitions and to develop its doctrine creatively, as it had done in 45/2012. The paradox is evident. The CC would then have had to exercise a form of âcreative resistance against abusive constitutionalismâ, where abusive constitutionalism refers to measures adopted as part of democratic reconstruction. A Court that, as a body, has accommodated the OrbĂĄn regimeâs illiberal constitutional project since at least 2016 would have had to confront difficult questions about the nature of that regime, the position of the new Tisza constitutional majority, the purposes of reconstruction, and the constitutional implications of the political change following the April 2026 elections. Instead, the CC chose an interpretative approach that appears more convenient in August 2026 and easier to defend. The concurring opinions make the convenience of this position particularly visible. Several judges accept the rejection of the petitions for lack of competence while criticizing the reconstruction measures substantively. AndrĂĄs Patyi expressly distinguishes between his position as a scholar, from which perspective some of the amendments are constitutionally doubtful, and his position as a judge, in which he accepts that the CC lacks competence to review them. BalĂĄzs Schanda similarly criticizes particular reconstruction measures, including the restriction of passive suffrage and the treatment of sitting CC judges, while accepting the same jurisdictional limitation. IldikĂł Marosi HörchernĂ© invokes 45/2012âs criticism of the Fidesz majorityâs amendment practices in 2011 and draws a parallel with the rapid adoption of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments by the Tisza majority. She also refers to the need for constitutional culture and to a constitutional and European minimum that a constitutional majority should not cross, implying that the new majorityâs measures are raising precisely these concerns. These opinions thus place the constitutional excesses of the OrbĂĄn period and the reconstruction measures of the new majority on a similar plane, without addressing the difference between an illiberal constitutional project and measures aimed at dismantling its institutional legacy. The Dissenting Opinions of the 2026 Decisions: Positional ReversalThe positional reversal becomes most visible in dissenting opinions. They recover doctrinal resources through which the CC could reopen the possibility of reviewing constitutional amendments, with the potential effect of preventing some of the reconstruction efforts. Their principal resource, as in the petitions, is Decision 45/2012. The dissenting opinions argue in different ways that formal adoption as a constitutional amendment does not necessarily settle whether the challenged provisions are genuinely constitutional norms and, consequently, whether Article 24(5) excludes their review. This revives the central move of 45/2012 (creative resistance against Fideszâs abusive constitutionalism): the Court may first examine the legal character of an act despite its formal constitutional designation. In 2012, the Court used that reasoning against the Fidesz constitutional majority; in 2026, it is invoked in support of Fideszâs challenge to the reconstruction majority. PĂ©ter Polt develops the reversal most clearly. He accepts that the majorityâs restrictive reading of Article 24(5) is possible but argues that the CC must first determine whether the challenged provisions genuinely constitute exercises of constitution-amending power. More importantly, he places 45/2012, a decision resisting abusive constitutionalism, alongside 22/2016, which creatively facilitated authoritarian entrenchment, as examples of the CC adapting its doctrine when new constitutional circumstances required effective constitutional protection. Even though the two decisions had very different functions, Polt, like the majority opinion, disregard that difference and presents both as part of a single tradition of creative constitutional guardianship. On this reading, the CC should innovate again in 2026 â this time in a way that would protect the illiberal constitutional order against reconstruction. Attila HorvĂĄth follows a different route. He regards the limits of Parliamentâs amending competence as reviewable under Article 24(5) and goes further by invoking the historical constitution, the Holy Crown doctrine and 22/2016 constitutional identity as sources of limits on the amending power. His use of decision 22/2016 therefore differs from Poltâs: Polt uses the decision to justify renewed judicial creativity, while HorvĂĄth uses the doctrine developed in it as part of the constitutional constraints binding the new majority. In this sense, HorvĂĄth most directly carries the CCâs illiberal-era jurisprudence into the new reconstruction setting. The positional reversal lies in the changed constitutional function of familiar arguments. Formal constitutional status should not be conclusive; jurisdiction should not be interpreted narrowly when constitutional protection is at stake; and the CC should be prepared to develop doctrine in response to a new constitutional threat. In 2011 and 2012, such arguments were deployed to preserve constitutional-democratic constraints against the Fidesz majority. In 2026, they are redeployed to constrain measures aimed at dismantling the constitutional order that Fidesz subsequently built. The 2026 decisions reveal two forms of positional reversal. The majority leaves the restrictive 2013 doctrine intact, but its effect reverses, while the concurring opinions show how convenient that continuity is: judges can criticize reconstruction without reopening the question of jurisdiction or confronting the difference between illiberal entrenchment and democratic reconstruction. The dissenting opinions go further by reviving and recombining doctrines once used to resist Fidesz in order to argue for broader review of the new constitutional majorityâs reconstruction measures. The post Constitutional Politics in Action â Part II appeared first on Verfassungsblog. Constitutional Politics in Action â Part I
The Fidesz-KDNP parliamentary group submitted petitions to the Constitutional Court in July 2026 challenging Hungaryâs newly adopted Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments to the Fundamental Law as the first constitutional steps in its regime change and constitutional reconstruction. The petitions challenging the constitutionality of the amendments to the Fundamental Law demonstrate how constitutional doctrine can be strategically reconfigured when political actors move from exercising constitutional power to challenging its exercise by others. The case contributes to debates on the use and abuse of constitutional ideas and documents a backlash against democratic front-sliding: after losing control of constitutional power, a former governing party, Fidesz, strategically reconfigures elements of domestic doctrine that had been used to resist its own autocratization and redeploys international and supranational authorities, including standards and judgments previously invoked against its conduct, as constraints on democratic reconstruction. The 16th and the 17th Amendments of the Hungarian Fundamental LawThe Sixteenth Amendment introduced immediate constitutional reforms by limiting the Prime Ministerâs tenure, creating the constitutional framework for dismantling the public-interest asset management foundations performing public duty, and ensuring the recovery of public assets. The Seventeenth Amendment complemented these immediate reforms through a broader package of institutional changes, including the removal of the President of the Republic, reforms concerning the Constitutional Court, including the reintroduction of a retirement age affecting 5 judges in 2026, the removal process of the President of the Curia, term limits for Members of Parliament, and reduction of the number of cardinal laws. It expressly presented itself as creating the constitutional framework for restoring constitutional democracy until the adoption of a new constitution through an inclusive constitution-making process. The PetitionsAccording to the website of the CC, in July 2026, members of the Fidesz-KDNP parliamentary group submitted four petitions challenging provisions of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments on procedural grounds (in addition to challenging the implementing legislation thereof). The petitions concern the termination of the Presidentâs mandate, the dismantling of the public-interest asset management foundation system, parliamentary term limits, and the application of a newly introduced retirement age to five sitting Constitutional Court (CC) judges. The petitioners seek the annulment of the challenged provisions, generally with retroactive effect, on a procedural ground, based on Article S) of the FL. Two petitions also request a preliminary reference to the Court of Justice of the European Union concerning democracy, the rule of law, and legality under EU law, also in light of rule of law restoration. The Reasoning of Fidesz-KDNP: The Strategic Reconfiguration of Doctrine and its WeaknessesAs the CC does not have the power to conduct substantive review of constitutional amendments, the petitioners are explicit in their intention not to ask the Court to perform it. They repeatedly emphasize that they accept the CCâs limited jurisdiction and instead argue that the challenged provisions are not genuine constitutional amendments at all. The petitions challenging the constitutional amendments rely on the same conceptual argument, which is as follows. Article S) FL does not authorize every two-thirds political decision, and constitutional amendments must have normative constitutional content. That is why, according to the petitioners, one-off measures directed at identifiable persons are outside the material scope of a constitutional amendment. The following five features of their argument reveal how Fidesz has reconfigured constitutional doctrine after moving from exercising constitutional power to challenging its exercise by others. Who Holds the Constituent PowerFirst, citing Hungarian scholarship, the petitioners argue that the constitutional amending power is a distinct power from the constituent power. They conceptualize the constitutional amending power as a legally limited power with its own material scope. This departs from Fideszâs earlier treatment of constitutional amendment as an exercise of constituent power, under which compliance with the formal constitutional requirements was sufficient to produce a valid amendment. Each amendment adopted during its period in government presented Parliament as acting in that capacity, beginning with the formula: âParliament, acting as the constituent power âŠâ. The Extent of the Procedural ReviewSecond, the petitioners maintain that self-classification does not determine the constitutional status of a legal instrument. The petitions argue that the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments cannot qualify as genuine constitutional amendments merely because Parliament adopted them in that form. Their constitutional status depends on the nature of the rules they contain. Provisions terminating individual mandates as proposed without reforming the institutions to which those mandates belong back, according to the petitioners, the required normative constitutional character. This argument directly contradicts the position taken by Fidesz when it adopted the Transitional Provisions of the Fundamental Law (TP FL). This legal instrument contained important elements of the emerging illiberalism and was strongly criticized. It was not a constitutional amendment but âpart of the Fundamental Lawâ (as it declared itself) and entered into force together with the FL on 1 January 2012. Fidesz argued that this declaration â âpart of the Fundamental Lawâ â and the adoption process â 2/3 parliamentary majority â were sufficient to establish its constitutional status. In Decision 45/2012, the still not yet fully compromised CC rejected that position: an instrumentâs self-classification could not determine its place in the hierarchy of legal sources. The Court held that the instrumentâs self-classification was insufficient, annulled the provisions that lacked genuinely transitional character, and required provisions intended to form âpart ofâ the Fundamental Law to be incorporated into its text. The decision came in 2012, shortly after constitutional measures had restricted the Courtâs review competence, increased the number of its judges, and changed the appointment process. At that point, the Court was still able to fight back. To reach its conclusion, and keeping in mind that the constitutional context indicated that the TP FL is indeed part of the FL, the CC had to move beyond its existing doctrine. Review and potential annulment of provisions forming part of the constitution would thus have amounted to substantive constitutional review for which neither the constitution nor the CC has established any competence. That is why, in 2012, the CC took an innovative step, claiming that the TP FL, notwithstanding its self-classification and the adoption process, does not constitute part of the constitution because it comprises different types of norms and is not incorporated into the text of the FL. This classificatory move enabled the Court to scrutinize the substantive nature of the provisions and annul those it considered non-transitional while presenting the exercise as review of public-law validity rather than substantive review of the constitution. It is important to note here that the TP FL, including rules annulled in the CCâs Decision 45/2012, was subsequently incorporated into the FL through the harshly criticized Fourth Amendment to the FL (2013). That amendment, among others, expressly confined the CCâs review of constitutional amendments to procedural requirements, seeking to foreclose the possibility of substantive review that the Court had tentatively left open in response to repeated abusive amendments. Decision 45/2012 created a difficulty for the governing Fidesz majority, which it overcame by incorporating the relevant provisions into the FL. Fidesz now relies on and further develops the reasoning used by the Court in that decision against its own TP FL. It seeks to place the constitutional challenge within procedural review, although determining the legal nature of the rules contained in a constitutional amendment requires an examination of their substantive characteristics. This weakness of the argument, of course, results from the review framework that Fidesz itself created through the Fourth Amendment: having confined the review of constitutional amendments to procedural requirements, it must now formulate its challenge to the new majorityâs amendments within that limitation. The Purpose of the AmendmentsThird, the petitioners address the purpose of restoring the rule of law selectively. They invoke this purpose in relation to the Sixteenth Amendment, although that amendment does not expressly identify rule-of-law restoration as its objective. They do not give the Seventeenth Amendmentâs expressly stated restoration purpose a comparable interpretative role. Article R) requires the Fundamental Law to be interpreted in accordance with its purposes. The Seventeenth Amendment states its purpose in its text, and its legislative materials elaborate upon it. Taking that purpose into account would have placed the challenged provisions within the broader project of constitutional reconstruction. It would also have supplied a legitimate objective against which their character as allegedly individualized public-law decisions could be assessed. The petitioners avoid this contextual analysis, which reveals the selectivity of their reasoning. Selectivity of Legal SourcesFourth, the petitioners display the same selectivity in their use of legal authorities. They rely on CC decisions adopted before the FL entered into force, although Fidesz itself used the Fourth Amendment to declare that decisions delivered before 1 January 2012 had lost their force. This is still doctrinally permissible under Decision 13/2013, but only one petition expressly relies on that methodology. The significance lies in Fideszâs extensive use of doctrinal propositions originating in that jurisprudence once they become useful for constraining its successors. They also invoke supranational and international hard and soft law concerning judicial independence and the constitutional position of the head of state â standards to which Fidesz attached little significance during its sixteen years in power. The authorities cited include Baka v Hungary, which arose from the premature termination of AndrĂĄs Bakaâs mandate as the President of the then Supreme Court under the Fidesz government and resulted in findings that Hungary had violated the European Convention on Human Rights. Their selection of international sources is also temporally selective. The petitions cite numerous Venice Commission opinions but do not engage with its recent opinion on Poland and its Updated Rule of Law Checklist. Both recognize the particular challenges of restoring the rule of law, including within the judiciary, and provide a directly relevant framework for evaluating measures affecting judicial officeholders. The petitionersâ silence on these recent sources allows them to invoke European standards without confronting their application to democratic reconstruction â which they challenge in these petitions. Preliminary Reference ProceedingLastly, the petitioners also request preliminary references to the Court of Justice of the European Union. This is significant in the Hungarian context, where the captured Constitutional Court has so far declined to initiate it, even in cases involving constitutional identity issues, which usually prompted other constitutional courts to enter into direct judicial dialogue with the CJEU. The petitions now ask the Court to seek an interpretation of EU values, particularly democracy, the rule of law, and legality. Doctrine and Politics: Who Serves Whom?The case reveals the positional character of constitutional doctrine: its content changes with the political actorâs relationship to constitutional power. After losing constitutional power, Fidesz invokes a restricted conception of the constitutional amending power, earlier Constitutional Court reasoning, European standards, and judicial dialogue with the CJEU as constraints on democratic reconstruction, repurposing authorities previously used against its own autocratization. The petitions thus document a legal backlash against democratic front-sliding: doctrine and standards used to obstruct and criticize Fideszâs autocratization are reworked by Fidesz to obstruct the dismantling of the resulting autocratic system. The post Constitutional Politics in Action â Part I appeared first on Verfassungsblog. |